OncoLink
NCI/PDQ® Health professionals: Oral Cancer Prevention (PDQ®)
National Cancer Institute
Last Modified: January 26, 2012

TABLE OF CONTENTS


Overview

Back Up

Note: Separate PDQ® summaries on Oral Cancer Screening; Lip and Oral Cavity Cancer Treatment; and Cigarette Smoking: Health Risks and How to Quit are also available.


Who is at Risk?

People who use tobacco in any of the commonly available forms (cigarettes, cigars, pipes, and smokeless tobacco) or have high alcohol intake are at elevated risk of oral cancer; and they are at particularly high risk if they use both tobacco and alcohol. People who chew betel quid (whether mixed with tobacco or not)a common practice in south central Asia and Melanesiaare also at high risk. Individuals with persistent oral infection by carcinogenic strains of human papillomavirus (HPV) are also at increased risk. People with chronic sun exposure are at elevated risk of lip cancer, particularly on the lower lip.


Factors associated with increased risk of oral cancer


Tobacco use

Based on solid evidence from numerous observational studies, tobacco use causes cancers of the lip, oral cavity, and oropharynx. 1 2 3 Smoking avoidance and smoking cessation result in decreased incidence and mortality from oral cancer.

Magnitude of Effect: Large (most cancers of the oral cavity are attributable to the use of tobacco products).

  • Study Design: Numerous observational case-control and cohort studies.
  • Internal Validity: Good.
  • Consistency: Good.
  • External Validity: Good.


Alcohol use

Based on solid evidence, alcohol use is an independent risk factor for the development of oral cancer. 4 5 6 7

Magnitude of Effect: Lower than the risk associated with tobacco use, but the risk is approximately doubled for people who drink three to four alcoholic beverages per day compared to nondrinkers, and is dose related.

  • Study Design: Case-control and cohort studies.
  • Internal Validity: Good.
  • Consistency: Good.
  • External Validity: Good.

Oral cancer risk is highest in persons using both alcohol and tobacco compared with those using one or the other.


HPV infection

Based on solid evidence, there is a strong association between oral HPV infection and oral cancer, particularly HPV type 16. 8 9 10 11 Given the known causal association between HPV infections and cancer of the cervix, the established strong association between infection by carcinogenic strains of HPV and oral cancer may also be causal.

Magnitude of Effect: Not well quantified. It accounts for a small but increasing proportion of oral cancers.

  • Study Design: Case-control studies.
  • Internal Validity: Good.
  • Consistency: Good.
  • External Validity: Good.


Sun exposure

Based on fair evidence, carcinoma of the lip, predominantly the lower lip, is associated with sun exposure. 12 13 14

Magnitude of Effect: Not well quantified due to wide confidence intervals.

  • Study Design: Case-control studies.
  • Internal Validity: Fair.
  • Consistency: Small number of studies make consistency difficult to assess.
  • External Validity: Fair.


Interventions Associated With a Decreased Risk of Oral Cancer


Avoidance of tobacco

Based on solid evidence, avoidance or cessation of exposure to tobacco (e.g., cigarettes, pipes, cigars, and smokeless tobacco) would lead to a decrease in oral cancer.

Magnitude of Effect: Decreased risk, moderate to large magnitude.

  • Study Design: Cohort or case-control studies.
  • Internal Validity: Good.
  • Consistency: Good.
  • External Validity: Good.


Interventions With Inadequate Evidence as to Whether They Reduce the Risk of Oral Cancer


Avoidance of alcohol

Although alcohol use is a risk factor for oral cancer and, by inference, its avoidance would lead to fewer cases, there is inadequate empiric evidence that cessation of alcohol use decreases the risk of oral cancer.

Magnitude of Effect: Decreased risk, moderate magnitude.

  • Study Design: Evidence of association only, from cohort or case-control studies.
  • Internal Validity: Good.
  • Consistency: Good.
  • External Validity: Good.


Avoidance of HPV infection

Although infection with specific carcinogenic strains of HPV is a risk factor for (and likely causes) a subset of oral cancers and, by inference, its avoidance would lead to fewer cases, there is inadequate empiric evidence that strategies to avoid infection decrease the risk of oral cancer.

Magnitude of Effect: Not defined.

  • Study Design: Evidence of association only, based on case-control studies.
  • Internal Validity: Good.
  • Consistency: Good.
  • External Validity: Good.


Dietary factors

There is inadequate evidence to determine whether a change in diet would decrease the risk of oral cancer.

Magnitude of Effect: Not applicable (N/A).

  • Study Design: Evidence of association only, obtained from cohort or case-control studies.
  • Internal Validity: Inadequate.
  • Consistency: N/A.
  • External Validity: N/A.


Sun avoidance and sunscreen use

There is inadequate evidence to determine whether reducing sun exposure or use of sunscreens would prevent lip cancer. (Refer to the PDQ® summary on Skin Cancer Prevention for more information about sun avoidance and sunscreen use for prevention of skin cancer.)

Magnitude of Effect: N/A.

  • Study Design: Evidence of association only, from cohort or case-control studies.
  • Internal Validity: Inadequate.
  • Consistency: N/A.
  • External Validity: N/A.

References:

  1. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.: The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, Ga: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, CDC, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, 2004. Available online [PUBMED Abstract]
  2. National Cancer Institute.: Cigars: Health Effects and Trends. Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, [1998]. Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph 9. Available online [PUBMED Abstract]
  3. IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans.: Smokeless tobacco and some tobacco-specific N-nitrosamines. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 89: 1-592, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
  4. Blot WJ, McLaughlin JK, Winn DM, et al.: Smoking and drinking in relation to oral and pharyngeal cancer. Cancer Res 48 (11): 3282-7, 1988. [PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Altieri A, Bosetti C, Gallus S, et al.: Wine, beer and spirits and risk of oral and pharyngeal cancer: a case-control study from Italy and Switzerland. Oral Oncol 40 (9): 904-9, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
  6. Talamini R, La Vecchia C, Levi F, et al.: Cancer of the oral cavity and pharynx in nonsmokers who drink alcohol and in nondrinkers who smoke tobacco. J Natl Cancer Inst 90 (24): 1901-3, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
  7. Talamini R, Franceschi S, Barra S, et al.: The role of alcohol in oral and pharyngeal cancer in non-smokers, and of tobacco in non-drinkers. Int J Cancer 46 (3): 391-3, 1990. [PUBMED Abstract]
  8. Schwartz SM, Daling JR, Doody DR, et al.: Oral cancer risk in relation to sexual history and evidence of human papillomavirus infection. J Natl Cancer Inst 90 (21): 1626-36, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
  9. Mork J, Lie AK, Glattre E, et al.: Human papillomavirus infection as a risk factor for squamous-cell carcinoma of the head and neck. N Engl J Med 344 (15): 1125-31, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
  10. D'Souza G, Kreimer AR, Viscidi R, et al.: Case-control study of human papillomavirus and oropharyngeal cancer. N Engl J Med 356 (19): 1944-56, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
  11. Franceschi S, Muíoz N, Bosch XF, et al.: Human papillomavirus and cancers of the upper aerodigestive tract: a review of epidemiological and experimental evidence. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 5 (7): 567-75, 1996. [PUBMED Abstract]
  12. Pogoda JM, Preston-Martin S: Solar radiation, lip protection, and lip cancer risk in Los Angeles County women (California, United States). Cancer Causes Control 7 (4): 458-63, 1996. [PUBMED Abstract]
  13. Silverman S Jr, ed.: Oral Cancer. 4th ed. Hamilton, Canada: BC Decker, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
  14. Perea-Milla López E, Miíarro-Del Moral RM, Martínez-García C, et al.: Lifestyles, environmental and phenotypic factors associated with lip cancer: a case-control study in southern Spain. Br J Cancer 88 (11): 1702-7, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]


Description of the Evidence

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Background


Incidence and mortality

Over the period from 2004 to 2008, the estimated incidence of oral cancer in the United States was 10.6 cases per 100,000 persons per year. The most recent estimated mortality rate (from 20032007) was 2.5 per 100,000 persons per year. U.S. incidence and mortality rates are about 2.5 and 2.8 times higher, respectively, in men than women. 1 It is estimated that there will be 40,250 new cases of oral cancer diagnosed in the United States in 2012 and 7,850 deaths due to this disease. 2 The estimated age-standardized (World Standard Population) worldwide incidence and mortality rates of oropharyngeal cancer in 2008 were 5.9 and 3.3 per 100,000 persons per year, respectively. 3 Primarily due to differences in tobacco and alcohol use, there is wide variation in rates across the world. 4 South central Asia and Melanesia have particularly high rates of oral cancer attributable to betel quid chewing, and Australia has a high rate of lip cancer attributed to solar irradiation.

Oral cancer can be divided into three clinicopathological categories: carcinoma of the lip vermillion, carcinoma of the oral cavity proper, and carcinoma of the oropharynx.

Squamous cell carcinoma, which arises from the oral mucosal lining, accounts for more than 90% of the tumors in the oral cavity and oropharynx. Other types of primary tumors arising in this area include lymphoma, sarcoma, melanoma, and minor salivary gland tumors. In the Western world the most common locations of tumor development are the tongue and floor of the mouth; however, in parts of the world where tobacco or betel quid chewing is prominent, cancers of the retromolar trigone and buccal mucosa are common. Oral squamous cell carcinomas are sometimes preceded by oral preneoplastic lesions, which are often present as visible alterations of the mucosal surface and include leukoplakia and erythroplakia. 5

The most important factor affecting long-term outcome after treatment is the stage of disease at diagnosis; however, overall outcome is stage and site dependent. Although early-stage tumors (without lymph node involvement) have an excellent anticipated 5-year survival rate (about 82%), the 5-year survival rates for patients with regional lymph node spread or metastases are only about 56% and 34%, respectively. 1 Some or all of the differences in prognosis among disease stages may be due to lead-time bias rather than a benefit of early detection and treatment. (Refer to the PDQ® summary on Cancer Screening Overview for more information.)


Risk Factors


Factors associated with increased risk of oral cancer


Tobacco use

Tobacco use is responsible for more than 90% of tumors of the oral cavity among men and 60% among women, 6 and is responsible for 90% of oral cancer deaths in males. 7 All forms of tobaccocigarettes, pipes, cigars, and smokeless tobaccohave been implicated in the development of oral cancers. 8 While tobacco confers the highest risk for cancer of the floor of the mouth, 9 it is associated with an increased risk for all sites of oral cancer.

Tobacco use is known to cause field cancerization resulting in a propensity for development of second primary tumors in patients with oral cancer. Case reports have also implicated marijuana smoking as a cause of oral cancer, particularly in younger patients. 10


Alcohol use

Alcohol use is a second independent major risk factor for the development of oral cancer. 11 12 13 14 There is a suggestion that beer and hard liquor confer a greater risk than wine. 11 The risk of oral cancer increases with the number of cigarettes smoked per day and the number of alcoholic drinks consumed per day in a dose-dependent fashion. 11 The combined use of alcohol and tobacco increases the risk for oral cancer far greater than either independently. Alcohol use has been shown to be an independent risk factor for development of oral premalignant lesions (leukoplakia or erythroplakia), which can progress to cancer. 15


Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection

There is an association between HPV and oral cancer, particularly HPV type 16 as shown in multiple case-control studies. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 HPV 16 accounts for 90% to 95% of HPV-positive oropharyngeal tumors, but other high-risk subtypes include 18, 31, 33, and 35. 20 The mechanism of HPV in the etiology of oral cancers may be related to its oncoproteins E6 and E7, which bind to and trigger the degradation of the p53 and pRB tumor suppressor proteins, respectively. HPV accounts for a relatively small proportion of oropharyngeal cancers compared to tobacco and alcohol. However, the rates of HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancers appear to be increasing. 20 23


Sun exposure

Carcinoma of the lip, predominantly on the lower lip, occurs in approximately 3,600 persons per year. Epidemiologically, these tumors behave akin to squamous cell carcinoma of the skin, and most are related to sun exposure, although chronic direct exposure to tobacco (i.e., the location where a pipe or cigarette is habitually held) is also associated with an increased risk of carcinoma of the lip. 24 25 26 Men have a higher risk of lip cancer than women. This has been attributed to tobacco use, greater occupational exposure to sunlight among men, and possibly due to the shielding effect of lipstick in women. 24


Interventions Associated With a Decreased Risk of Oral Cancer


Avoidance and cessation of tobacco use

The cessation of cigarette smoking is associated with a 50% reduction of risk of developing oral cancer within 3 to 5 years 27 and a return to a normal level of risk for development of oral cancer within 10 years. 11 Dentists and other health professionals can play an integral role in smoking cessation advice and encouragement.

Dentists can also participate in the full scope of pharmacological and behavioral interventions for smoking cessation. 28 A study has shown that only 25% of tobacco users report receiving advice to quit tobacco use from their dentist, 29 a proportion less than that received from their physician. There was a dramatic increase in the use of cigars of about 250% during the period between 1993 and 1998 30 and heavy cigar use is particularly associated with oral cancer development.


Interventions With Inadequate Evidence as to Whether They Reduce Risk of Oral Cancer


Alcohol avoidance and cessation

Because alcohol is associated with oral cancer in a dose-dependent fashion, 9 11 31 32 it is believed that cessation or avoidance of alcohol would result in a lower incidence of oral cancer. The evidence is inadequate, however, of reduced oral cancer among people who have stopped consuming alcohol.


Avoidance of HPV infection

Association with HPV 16positive squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN) is independently associated with several measures of sexual behavior, including number of self-reported oral sex partners, and exposure to marijuana, but not with cumulative measures of the usual risk factors of tobacco smoking, alcohol drinking, and poor oral hygiene. 16 33 Additionally, marijuana use may interact with high-risk HPV infection to promote SCCHN. Direct evidence is not available to determine if restricting these exposures will impact overall incidence or outcome of oral cancer.


Dietary changes and dietary supplements

Several studies have shown an inverse association of fruit intake and the development of oral cancer, particularly in those who use tobacco. 9 31 34 35 36 Fiber, in the form of vegetable intake, has similarly been shown to be associated with a decreased risk of oral cancer. It is estimated that intake of fruits and vegetables may lower the risk of development of oral cancer by 30% to 50%. 34 37 The evidence is inadequate, however, of reduced oral cancer among people who have made changes in their diet.

Dietary supplementation with alpha-tocopherol acetate (vitamin E) 50 mg per day and beta carotene 20 mg per day has been tested in a large randomized placebo-controlled 2 í 2 factorial trial of 29,133 male smokers aged 50 to 69 years. 38 After a median follow-up of 6.1 years, there were a total of 65 incident oropharyngeal cancers, with no statistically significant differences between the placebo and the active agents, whether alone or in combination. Moreover, in the same trial, beta carotene was associated with increased lung cancer incidence and mortality.


Sun avoidance and sunscreen use

The majority of cases of carcinoma of the lip occur on the lower lip, which has greater sun exposure than the upper lip. While tobacco has been strongly associated with lip cancer, sun exposure may be a factor as well. Sunscreen use has been associated with a lower incidence of skin cancers 39 40 and thus may lower the incidence of lip cancer. In a study of women in Los Angeles, a decreased risk of lip cancer was found to be associated with the daily use of lip protection (mostly colored lipstick). 24 Lip balm with sun protection is widely available.


Secondary Prevention

Agents for the reversal or prevention of recurrence of oral lesions that sometimes progress to cancer have been evaluated, with equivocal results. A randomized controlled trial (RCT) 41 found a protective effect of fenretinide against development of relapsed and new leukoplakias during 1 year of fenretinide treatment. The study had insufficient power to determine the effect on oral cancer incidence due to premature closure of the study. Other agents have been investigated for treatment of oral premalignant lesions. 42 43 44 45 46 47 None have been proven to prevent progression to oral malignancy, and none can be considered part of standard care.

A systematic Cochrane group literature review summarized randomized trials of either surgical (excision, laser ablation, or cryotherapy) or nonsurgical interventions for the treatment of oral leukoplakia. 48 Despite the fact that surgery is the most common therapy for oral leukoplakia, there were no studies of this modality with untreated controls for comparison. Nine randomized trials of medical interventions met inclusion criteria, and only two were judged to have a low risk of study bias. Only two (studying topical bleomycin, oral vitamin A, or oral beta carotene) reported malignant transformation as an endpoint, and neither showed a difference between the active treatment and control study groups. All of the studies had short follow-up relative to the natural progression rate of leukoplakia; the mean follow-up was no longer than 15 months. Although intermediate endpoints, such as clinical response, were reported in seven of the trials, none of these endpoints has been validated as predictive of malignant transformation.

Several agents have been studied for the prevention of second cancers in patients previously treated for SCCHN, including oropharyngeal cancer. High-dose isotretinoin (50100 mg/m orally per day for 12 months) was compared to placebo in a small study of 103 such patients. 49 50 Overall survival and incidence of recurrence of the primary tumors were similar in both treatment groups. There was a statistically significant decrease in rate of second head and neck cancers in the isotretinoin group, but isotretinoin toxicity was substantial, making the use of this agent impractical at these doses. To mitigate this toxicity, low-dose isotretinoin (30 mg orally per day for 3 years) was subsequently tested in a placebo-controlled randomized trial of 1,190 patients with head and neck cancer, but there was no decrease in incidence of second primary tumors at this dose. 51 Likewise, vitamin A and N-acetylcysteine, 52 as well as alpha-tocopherol and beta carotene, 53 have shown no efficacy in RCTs for the prevention of second primary tumors of the oropharynx in patients who had been treated for either head and neck cancer or lung cancer.

References:

  1. Howlader N, Noone AM, Krapcho M, et al., eds.: SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975-2008. Bethesda, Md: National Cancer Institute, 2011. Also available online [PUBMED Abstract]
  2. American Cancer Society.: Cancer Facts and Figures 2012. Atlanta, Ga: American Cancer Society, 2012. Available online [PUBMED Abstract]
  3. Ferlay J, Shin HR, Bray F, et al.: GLOBOCAN 2008: Cancer Incidence and Mortality Worldwide in 2008. Lyon, France: IARC CancerBase No. 10. Available online [PUBMED Abstract]
  4. Parkin DM, Bray F, Ferlay J, et al.: Global cancer statistics, 2002. CA Cancer J Clin 55 (2): 74-108, 2005 Mar-Apr. [PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Noonan VL, Kabani S: Diagnosis and management of suspicious lesions of the oral cavity. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 38 (1): 21-35, vii, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
  6. Reducing the Health Consequences of Smoking: 25 Years of Progress - a Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, Md : U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, 1989. [PUBMED Abstract]
  7. Cinciripini PM, McClure JB: Smoking cessation: recent developments in behavioral and pharmacologic interventions. Oncology (Huntingt) 12 (2): 249-56, 259; discussion 260, 265, 2, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
  8. Spitz MR, Newell GR: Descriptive epidemiology of squamous cell carcinoma of the upper aerodigestive tract. Cancer Bull 39(2): 79-81, 1987. [PUBMED Abstract]
  9. Macfarlane GJ, Zheng T, Marshall JR, et al.: Alcohol, tobacco, diet and the risk of oral cancer: a pooled analysis of three case-control studies. Eur J Cancer B Oral Oncol 31B (3): 181-7, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
  10. Firth NA: Marijuana use and oral cancer: a review. Oral Oncol 33 (6): 398-401, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
  11. Blot WJ, McLaughlin JK, Winn DM, et al.: Smoking and drinking in relation to oral and pharyngeal cancer. Cancer Res 48 (11): 3282-7, 1988. [PUBMED Abstract]
  12. Altieri A, Bosetti C, Gallus S, et al.: Wine, beer and spirits and risk of oral and pharyngeal cancer: a case-control study from Italy and Switzerland. Oral Oncol 40 (9): 904-9, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
  13. Talamini R, La Vecchia C, Levi F, et al.: Cancer of the oral cavity and pharynx in nonsmokers who drink alcohol and in nondrinkers who smoke tobacco. J Natl Cancer Inst 90 (24): 1901-3, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
  14. Talamini R, Franceschi S, Barra S, et al.: The role of alcohol in oral and pharyngeal cancer in non-smokers, and of tobacco in non-drinkers. Int J Cancer 46 (3): 391-3, 1990. [PUBMED Abstract]
  15. Hashibe M, Sankaranarayanan R, Thomas G, et al.: Alcohol drinking, body mass index and the risk of oral leukoplakia in an Indian population. Int J Cancer 88 (1): 129-34, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
  16. Schwartz SM, Daling JR, Doody DR, et al.: Oral cancer risk in relation to sexual history and evidence of human papillomavirus infection. J Natl Cancer Inst 90 (21): 1626-36, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
  17. Mork J, Lie AK, Glattre E, et al.: Human papillomavirus infection as a risk factor for squamous-cell carcinoma of the head and neck. N Engl J Med 344 (15): 1125-31, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
  18. D'Souza G, Kreimer AR, Viscidi R, et al.: Case-control study of human papillomavirus and oropharyngeal cancer. N Engl J Med 356 (19): 1944-56, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
  19. Franceschi S, Muíoz N, Bosch XF, et al.: Human papillomavirus and cancers of the upper aerodigestive tract: a review of epidemiological and experimental evidence. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 5 (7): 567-75, 1996. [PUBMED Abstract]
  20. Marklund L, Hammarstedt L: Impact of HPV in Oropharyngeal Cancer. J Oncol 2011: 509036, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
  21. Gillison ML, Koch WM, Capone RB, et al.: Evidence for a causal association between human papillomavirus and a subset of head and neck cancers. J Natl Cancer Inst 92 (9): 709-20, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
  22. Smith EM, Ritchie JM, Summersgill KF, et al.: Human papillomavirus in oral exfoliated cells and risk of head and neck cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 96 (6): 449-55, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
  23. Ramqvist T, Dalianis T: An epidemic of oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) due to human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and aspects of treatment and prevention. Anticancer Res 31 (5): 1515-9, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
  24. Pogoda JM, Preston-Martin S: Solar radiation, lip protection, and lip cancer risk in Los Angeles County women (California, United States). Cancer Causes Control 7 (4): 458-63, 1996. [PUBMED Abstract]
  25. Silverman S Jr, ed.: Oral Cancer. 4th ed. Hamilton, Canada: BC Decker, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
  26. Perea-Milla López E, Miíarro-Del Moral RM, Martínez-García C, et al.: Lifestyles, environmental and phenotypic factors associated with lip cancer: a case-control study in southern Spain. Br J Cancer 88 (11): 1702-7, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
  27. Samet JM: The health benefits of smoking cessation. Med Clin North Am 76 (2): 399-414, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
  28. Mecklenburg RE, Christen AG, et al.: How to Help Your Patients Stop Using Tobacco: a National Cancer Institute Manual for the Oral Health Team. Bethesda, Md: National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
  29. Martin LM, Bouquot JE, Wingo PA, et al.: Cancer prevention in the dental practice: oral cancer screening and tobacco cessation advice. J Public Health Dent 56 (6): 336-40, 1996 Fall. [PUBMED Abstract]
  30. Nelson NJ: "Big Smoke" has big risks: daily cigar use causes cancer, heart disease. J Natl Cancer Inst 90 (8): 562-4, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
  31. La Vecchia C, Tavani A, Franceschi S, et al.: Epidemiology and prevention of oral cancer. Oral Oncol 33 (5): 302-12, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
  32. Bagnardi V, Blangiardo M, La Vecchia C, et al.: Alcohol consumption and the risk of cancer: a meta-analysis. Alcohol Res Health 25 (4): 263-70, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
  33. Gillison ML, D'Souza G, Westra W, et al.: Distinct risk factor profiles for human papillomavirus type 16-positive and human papillomavirus type 16-negative head and neck cancers. J Natl Cancer Inst 100 (6): 407-20, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
  34. Winn DM, Ziegler RG, Pickle LW, et al.: Diet in the etiology of oral and pharyngeal cancer among women from the southern United States. Cancer Res 44 (3): 1216-22, 1984. [PUBMED Abstract]
  35. Winn DM: Diet and nutrition in the etiology of oral cancer. Am J Clin Nutr 61 (2): 437S-445S, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
  36. Horn-Ross PL, Morrow M, Ljung BM: Diet and the risk of salivary gland cancer. Am J Epidemiol 146 (2): 171-6, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
  37. Morse DE, Pendrys DG, Katz RV, et al.: Food group intake and the risk of oral epithelial dysplasia in a United States population. Cancer Causes Control 11 (8): 713-20, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
  38. Wright ME, Virtamo J, Hartman AM, et al.: Effects of alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplementation on upper aerodigestive tract cancers in a large, randomized controlled trial. Cancer 109 (5): 891-8, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
  39. Naylor MF, Farmer KC: The case for sunscreens. A review of their use in preventing actinic damage and neoplasia. Arch Dermatol 133 (9): 1146-54, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
  40. Cummings SR, Tripp MK, Herrmann NB: Approaches to the prevention and control of skin cancer. Cancer Metastasis Rev 16 (3-4): 309-27, 1997 Sep-Dec. [PUBMED Abstract]
  41. Chiesa F, Tradati N, Grigolato R, et al.: Randomized trial of fenretinide (4-HPR) to prevent recurrences, new localizations and carcinomas in patients operated on for oral leukoplakia: long-term results. Int J Cancer 115 (4): 625-9, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
  42. Halder A, Raychowdhury R, Ghosh A, et al.: Black tea (Camellia sinensis) as a chemopreventive agent in oral precancerous lesions. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol 24 (2): 141-4, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
  43. Lin DT, Subbaramaiah K, Shah JP, et al.: Cyclooxygenase-2: a novel molecular target for the prevention and treatment of head and neck cancer. Head Neck 24 (8): 792-9, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
  44. Armstrong WB, Kennedy AR, Wan XS, et al.: Clinical modulation of oral leukoplakia and protease activity by Bowman-Birk inhibitor concentrate in a phase IIa chemoprevention trial. Clin Cancer Res 6 (12): 4684-91, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
  45. Rudin CM, Cohen EE, Papadimitrakopoulou VA, et al.: An attenuated adenovirus, ONYX-015, as mouthwash therapy for premalignant oral dysplasia. J Clin Oncol 21 (24): 4546-52, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
  46. Papadimitrakopoulou VA, Lee JJ, William WN Jr, et al.: Randomized trial of 13-cis retinoic acid compared with retinyl palmitate with or without beta-carotene in oral premalignancy. J Clin Oncol 27 (4): 599-604, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
  47. Tsao AS, Liu D, Martin J, et al.: Phase II randomized, placebo-controlled trial of green tea extract in patients with high-risk oral premalignant lesions. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2 (11): 931-41, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
  48. Lodi G, Sardella A, Bez C, et al.: Interventions for treating oral leukoplakia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD001829, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
  49. Hong WK, Lippman SM, Itri LM, et al.: Prevention of second primary tumors with isotretinoin in squamous-cell carcinoma of the head and neck. N Engl J Med 323 (12): 795-801, 1990. [PUBMED Abstract]
  50. Benner SE, Pajak TF, Lippman SM, et al.: Prevention of second primary tumors with isotretinoin in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck: long-term follow-up. J Natl Cancer Inst 86 (2): 140-1, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
  51. Khuri FR, Lee JJ, Lippman SM, et al.: Randomized phase III trial of low-dose isotretinoin for prevention of second primary tumors in stage I and II head and neck cancer patients. J Natl Cancer Inst 98 (7): 441-50, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
  52. van Zandwijk N, Dalesio O, Pastorino U, et al.: EUROSCAN, a randomized trial of vitamin A and N-acetylcysteine in patients with head and neck cancer or lung cancer. For the EUropean Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Head and Neck and Lung Cancer Cooperative Groups. J Natl Cancer Inst 92 (12): 977-86, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
  53. Bairati I, Meyer F, Gélinas M, et al.: A randomized trial of antioxidant vitamins to prevent second primary cancers in head and neck cancer patients. J Natl Cancer Inst 97 (7): 481-8, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]


Changes to This Summary (01/26/2012)

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The PDQ® cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

Description of the Evidence

Updated statistics with estimated new cases and deaths for 2012 (cited American Cancer Society as reference 2).

This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ® Screening and Prevention Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ® Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ® summaries can be found on the About This PDQ® Summary and PDQ® NCI's Comprehensive Cancer Database pages.


Questions or Comments About This Summary

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About This PDQ® Summary

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Purpose of This Summary

This PDQ® cancer information summary for health professionals provides comprehensive, peer-reviewed, evidence-based information about oral cancer prevention. It is intended as a resource to inform and assist clinicians who care for cancer patients. It does not provide formal guidelines or recommendations for making health care decisions.


Reviewers and Updates

This summary is reviewed regularly and updated as necessary by the PDQ® Screening and Prevention Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

Board members review recently published articles each month to determine whether an article should:

  • be discussed at a meeting,
  • be cited with text, or
  • replace or update an existing article that is already cited.

Changes to the summaries are made through a consensus process in which Board members evaluate the strength of the evidence in the published articles and determine how the article should be included in the summary.

Any comments or questions about the summary content should be submitted to Cancer.gov through the Web site's Contact Form. Do not contact the individual Board Members with questions or comments about the summaries. Board members will not respond to individual inquiries.


Levels of Evidence

Some of the reference citations in this summary are accompanied by a level-of-evidence designation. These designations are intended to help readers assess the strength of the evidence supporting the use of specific interventions or approaches. The PDQ® Screening and Prevention Editorial Board uses a formal evidence ranking system in developing its level-of-evidence designations.


Permission to Use This Summary

PDQ® is a registered trademark. Although the content of PDQ® documents can be used freely as text, it cannot be identified as an NCI PDQ® cancer information summary unless it is presented in its entirety and is regularly updated. However, an author would be permitted to write a sentence such as NCI's PDQ® cancer information summary about breast cancer prevention states the risks succinctly: [include excerpt from the summary].

The preferred citation for this PDQ® summary is:

National Cancer Institute: PDQ® Oral Cancer Prevention. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Date last modified . Available at: http://cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/prevention/oral/HealthProfessional. Accessed .

Images in this summary are used with permission of the author(s), artist, and/or publisher for use within the PDQ® summaries only. Permission to use images outside the context of PDQ® information must be obtained from the owner(s) and cannot be granted by the National Cancer Institute. Information about using the illustrations in this summary, along with many other cancer-related images, is available in Visuals Online, a collection of over 2,000 scientific images.


Disclaimer

The information in these summaries should not be used as a basis for insurance reimbursement determinations. More information on insurance coverage is available on Cancer.gov on the Coping with Cancer: Financial, Insurance, and Legal Information page.


Contact Us

More information about contacting us or receiving help with the Cancer.gov Web site can be found on our Contact Us for Help page. Questions can also be submitted to Cancer.gov through the Web site's Contact Form.


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